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A boiler is a closed vessel in which drinking water or other fluid is heated. The fluid will not necessarily boil. (In THE UNITED STATES, the word "furnace" is normally used if the reason is never to boil the liquid.) The heated or vaporized liquid exits the boiler for use in a variety of procedures or heating system applications,[1 - [2 - including drinking water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking food, and sanitation.

Materials
The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually manufactured from steel (or alloy steel), or historically of wrought iron. Stainless steel, of the austenitic types especially, is not used in wetted parts of boilers due to corrosion and stress corrosion breaking.[3 - However, ferritic stainless steel is often found in superheater sections that will not come in contact with boiling drinking water, and electrically heated stainless shell boilers are allowed under the European "Pressure Equipment Directive" for creation of steam for sterilizers and disinfectors.[4 -
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler
In live steam models, copper or brass is often used because it is easier fabricated in smaller size boilers. Historically, copper was often used for fireboxes (especially for vapor locomotives), due to its better formability and higher thermal conductivity; however, in newer times, the high price of copper often makes this an uneconomic choice and cheaper substitutes (such as metal) are used instead.

For much of the Victorian "age group of vapor", the only materials used for boilermaking was the best grade of wrought iron, with assembly by rivetting. This iron was often obtained from specialist ironworks, such as at Cleator Moor (UK), observed for the high quality of their rolled plate and its own suitability for high-reliability use in critical applications, such as high-pressure boilers. In the 20th century, design practice instead relocated towards the use of steel, which is more powerful and cheaper, with welded construction, which is quicker and requires less labour. It should be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode significantly slower than their modern-day metal counterparts, and are less susceptible to localized stress-corrosion and pitting. This makes the durability of old wrought-iron boilers much more advanced than those of welded steel boilers.

Cast iron can be utilized for the heating system vessel of local water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed "boilers" in some countries, their purpose is to create hot water usually, not steam, and they also run at low pressure and stay away from boiling. The brittleness of cast iron helps it be impractical for high-pressure vapor boilers.
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Energy
The foundation of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, or gas. Electric steam boilers use level of resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear fission is used as a heat source for producing steam also, either straight (BWR) or, generally, in specialised high temperature exchangers called "steam generators" (PWR). Heat recovery vapor generators (HRSGs) use the heat rejected from other procedures such as gas turbine.

Boiler efficiency
there are two solutions to measure the boiler efficiency 1) direct method 2) indirect method

Immediate method -direct approach to boiler efficiency test is more usable or even more common

boiler efficiency =Q*((Hg-Hf)/q)*(GCV *100 ) Q =Total vapor flow Hg= Enthalpy of saturated vapor in k cal/kg Hf =Enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg q= level of energy use in kg/hr GCV =gross calorific value in kcal/kg like family pet coke (8200 kcal/KG)

indirect method -to gauge the boiler efficiency in indirect method, we need a following parameter like

Ultimate analysis of energy (H2,S2,S,C moisture constraint, ash constraint)
percentage of O2 or CO2 at flue gas
flue gas temperature at outlet
ambient temperature in deg c and humidity of air in kg/kg
GCV of energy in kcal/kg
ash percentage in combustible fuel
GCV of ash in kcal/kg
Configurations
Boilers can be classified in to the following configurations:

Pot boiler or Haycock boiler/Haystack boiler: a primitive "kettle" in which a open fire heats a partially filled water box from below. 18th century Haycock boilers produced and stored large volumes of very low-pressure steam generally, hardly above that of the atmosphere often. These could burn wood or most often, coal. Efficiency was suprisingly low.
Flued boiler with a couple of large flues-an early forerunner or type of fire-tube boiler.

Diagram of a fire-tube boiler
Fire-tube boiler: Here, drinking water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume remaining above to accommodate the steam (vapor space). This is the kind of boiler used in almost all steam locomotives. Heat source is in the furnace or firebox that has to be kept permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the heat range of the heating system surface below the boiling point. The furnace can be situated at one end of the fire-tube which lengthens the path of the hot gases, thus augmenting the heating surface which may be further increased by causing the gases reverse direction through another parallel pipe or a bundle of multiple pipes (two-pass or come back flue boiler); on the other hand the gases may be studied along the edges and then under the boiler through flues (3-move boiler). In case of a locomotive-type boiler, a boiler barrel expands from the firebox and the hot gases pass through a lot of money of fire pipes inside the barrel which greatly increases the heating surface compared to a single tube and further increases heat transfer. Fire-tube boilers have a comparatively low rate of vapor production usually, but high steam storage capacity. Fire-tube boilers mainly burn off solid fuels, but are readily adjustable to the people of the liquid or gas variety.

Diagram of the water-tube boiler.
Water-tube boiler: In this type, tubes filled with drinking water are arranged in the furnace in a true quantity of possible configurations. Often the drinking water tubes connect large drums, the low ones containing water and the upper ones steam and water; in other situations, such as a mono-tube boiler, water is circulated with a pump through a succession of coils. This type gives high steam creation rates generally, but less storage capacity than the above mentioned. Water tube boilers can be made to exploit any heat source and tend to be preferred in high-pressure applications since the high-pressure drinking water/steam is contained within small diameter pipes which can withstand the pressure with a thinner wall structure.
Flash boiler: A flash boiler is a specialized type of water-tube boiler in which tubes are close jointly and drinking water is pumped through them. A flash boiler differs from the kind of mono-tube steam generator in which the pipe is permanently filled up with water. Super fast boiler, the tube is held so hot that water feed is quickly flashed into vapor and superheated. Flash boilers acquired some use in cars in the 19th century and this use continued in to the early 20th century. .

1950s design vapor locomotive boiler, from a Victorian Railways J class
Fire-tube boiler with Water-tube firebox. Sometimes both above types have been mixed in the next manner: the firebox contains an assembly of water tubes, called thermic siphons. The gases then pass through a conventional firetube boiler. Water-tube fireboxes were installed in many Hungarian locomotives,[citation needed - but have met with little success in other countries.
Sectional boiler. Inside a cast iron sectional boiler, sometimes called a "pork chop boiler" water is included inside cast iron sections.[citation needed - These sections are assembled on site to generate the finished boiler.
Safety
See also: Boiler explosion
To define and secure boilers safely, some professional specialized organizations such as the American Culture of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) develop requirements and regulation rules. For example, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is a typical providing an array of guidelines and directives to ensure compliance of the boilers and other pressure vessels with basic safety, security and design standards.[5 -

Historically, boilers were a way to obtain many serious injuries and property destruction as a consequence to poorly understood engineering principles. Thin and brittle metal shells can rupture, while welded or riveted seams could start badly, resulting in a violent eruption of the pressurized vapor. When water is converted to steam it expands to over 1,000 times its original travels and volume down steam pipes at over 100 kilometres each hour. Because of this, vapor is a superb way of moving energy and heat around a site from a central boiler house to where it is needed, but without the right boiler feed water treatment, a steam-raising herb will suffer from range corrosion and formation. At best, this raises energy costs and can lead to poor quality vapor, reduced efficiency, shorter vegetation and unreliable procedure. At worst, it can lead to catastrophic loss and failure of life. Collapsed or dislodged boiler pipes can also spray scalding-hot vapor and smoke from the air intake and firing chute, injuring the firemen who load the coal into the fire chamber. Extremely large boilers providing hundreds of horsepower to use factories can potentially demolish entire structures.[6 -

A boiler which has a loss of give food to water and is permitted to boil dry can be extremely dangerous. If supply drinking water is then sent into the vacant boiler, the tiny cascade of inbound water instantly boils on connection with the superheated steel shell and leads to a violent explosion that cannot be controlled even by safety vapor valves. Draining of the boiler can also happen if a leak occurs in the steam source lines that is bigger than the make-up drinking water source could replace. The Hartford Loop was invented in 1919 by the Hartford Vapor Boiler and Insurance Company as a method to help prevent this problem from happening, and therefore reduce their insurance promises.[7 - [8 -

Superheated steam boiler

A superheated boiler on a steam locomotive.
Main article: Superheater
Most boilers produce vapor to be used at saturation temperatures; that is, saturated vapor. Superheated vapor boilers vaporize the water and then further high temperature the steam in a superheater. This provides vapor at much higher heat, but can decrease the overall thermal efficiency of the steam generating flower because the bigger steam temperature requires a higher flue gas exhaust temperature.[citation needed - There are many ways to circumvent this issue, by providing an economizer that heats the feed water typically, a combustion air heater in the hot flue gas exhaust route, or both. You will find benefits to superheated vapor that may, and often will, increase overall efficiency of both steam generation and its own utilization: benefits in input heat range to a turbine should outweigh any cost in additional boiler complication and expense. There may be useful limitations in using moist vapor also, as entrained condensation droplets will harm turbine blades.

Superheated steam presents unique safety concerns because, if any system component fails and allows steam to escape, the high pressure and temperature can cause serious, instantaneous injury to anyone in its path. Since the escaping steam will at first be completely superheated vapor, detection can be difficult, although the extreme heat and sound from such a leak indicates its presence clearly.

Superheater operation is similar to that of the coils on an air conditioning unit, although for a different purpose. The vapor piping is directed through the flue gas path in the boiler furnace. The heat in this area is between 1 typically,300 and 1,600 °C (2,372 and 2,912 °F). Some superheaters are radiant type; that is, they absorb warmth by radiation. Others are convection type, absorbing warmth from a fluid. Some are a combination of both types. Through either method, the extreme heat in the flue gas path will heat the superheater steam piping and the steam within also. While the temperatures of the vapor in the superheater goes up, the pressure of the vapor does not and the pressure remains exactly like that of the boiler.[9 - Almost all steam superheater system designs remove droplets entrained in the steam to avoid harm to the turbine blading and associated piping.

Supercritical steam generator

Boiler for a power seed.
Main article: Supercritical steam generator
Supercritical steam generators are used for the production of energy frequently. They operate at supercritical pressure. In contrast to a "subcritical boiler", a supercritical vapor generator operates at such a high pressure (over 3,200 psi or 22 MPa) that the physical turbulence that characterizes boiling ceases to occur; the liquid is neither liquid nor gas but a super-critical fluid. There is no generation of vapor bubbles within water, because the pressure is above the critical pressure point at which vapor bubbles can form. As the liquid expands through the turbine levels, its thermodynamic condition drops below the critical point as it can work turning the turbine which turns the power generator from which power is ultimately extracted. The fluid at that point may be a mix of steam and liquid droplets as it goes by into the condenser. This leads to slightly less fuel use and therefore less greenhouse gas creation. The word "boiler" shouldn't be used for a supercritical pressure vapor generator, as no "boiling" occurs in this device.
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Accessories
Boiler accessories and fittings
Pressuretrols to control the vapor pressure in the boiler. Boilers generally have two or three 3 pressuretrols: a manual-reset pressuretrol, which functions as a basic safety by setting top of the limit of steam pressure, the working pressuretrol, which handles when the boiler fires to maintain pressure, and for boilers outfitted with a modulating burner, a modulating pressuretrol which handles the quantity of fire.
Protection valve: It is utilized to relieve pressure and stop possible explosion of a boiler.
Water level indicators: They show the operator the amount of fluid in the boiler, known as a sight cup also, water gauge or water column.
Bottom blowdown valves: They offer a way for removing solid particulates that condense and rest on underneath of the boiler. As the name indicates, this valve is usually located on underneath of the boiler, and is occasionally opened up to use the pressure in the boiler to drive these particulates out.
Continuous blowdown valve: This enables a small quantity of water to escape continuously. Its purpose is to avoid the water in the boiler becoming saturated with dissolved salts. Saturation would lead to foaming and cause drinking water droplets to be transported over with the steam - a condition known as priming. Blowdown is often used to monitor the chemistry of the boiler drinking water also.
Trycock: a type of valve that is often use to manually check a water level in a tank. Most entirely on a drinking water boiler commonly.
Flash container: High-pressure blowdown enters this vessel where the steam can 'flash' safely and be found in a low-pressure system or be vented to atmosphere as the ambient pressure blowdown moves to drain.
Automatic blowdown/continuous heat recovery system: This technique allows the boiler to blowdown only when makeup water is moving to the boiler, thereby transferring the maximum amount of heat possible from the blowdown to the make-up water. No flash tank is generally needed as the blowdown discharged is close to the temperature of the make-up water.
Hand openings: They are steel plates installed in openings in "header" to allow for inspections & installation of pipes and inspection of internal surfaces.
Steam drum internals, a series of screen, scrubber & cans (cyclone separators).
Low-water cutoff: It is a mechanical means (usually a float switch) that can be used to turn off the burner or shut down gas to the boiler to prevent it from jogging once the water goes below a certain point. If a boiler is "dry-fired" (burnt without water in it) it can cause rupture or catastrophic failure.
Surface blowdown range: It offers a way for removing foam or other lightweight non-condensible substances that tend to float on top of the water inside the boiler.
Circulating pump: It is designed to circulate water back again to the boiler after they have expelled some of its heat.
Feedwater check valve or clack valve: A non-return stop valve in the feedwater series. This can be fitted to the comparative side of the boiler, below water level just, or to the top of the boiler.[10 -
Top feed: With this design for feedwater injection, water is fed to the top of the boiler. This can reduce boiler fatigue caused by thermal stress. By spraying the feedwater over some trays water is quickly warmed and this can reduce limescale.
Desuperheater tubes or bundles: A series of tubes or bundles of pipes in water drum or the steam drum made to cool superheated steam, in order to supply auxiliary equipment that does not need, or may be damaged by, dry steam.
Chemical injection line: A connection to add chemicals for controlling feedwater pH.
Steam accessories
Main vapor stop valve:
Steam traps:
Main steam stop/check valve: It can be used on multiple boiler installations.
Combustion accessories
Gasoline oil system:gasoline oil heaters
Gas system:
Coal system:
Soot blower
Other essential items
Pressure gauges:
Feed pumps:
Fusible plug:
Inspectors test pressure gauge attachment:
Name plate:
Registration plate: